The evolutionary theory suggests that the behaviours and thinking that we currently have, have adapted an advantage in our evolutionary past. It focuses on:
- Jealousy and infidelity.
- Aggression as an evolutionary advantage.
- Cuckoldry
- Mate retention tactics - violence and vigilance
- Individual survival
- Procreation potential
- Competition for limited resources
- Competing to increase own fitness
- Natural selection
- Adaptive trait
- Group display
- Warfare
Jealousy and infidelity
Early human males lived in fear of losing their mate to another male - something that would have devastating consequences for them in terms of passing on genes. This may have led to sexual jealousy. Male sexual jealousy was caused by the female's suspected infidelity.
Research:
- Buss et al (1992)
- Pipat
Group Display
There is a widespread belief that people behave differently when in groups compared to how they behave as individuals. Some behaviours only occur when like-minded people come together for the same purpose. This is often seen in:
Hooliganism and Xenophobia
Research:
- Marsh (1978)
- Cialdini (1976)
Territoriality
- Threat displays - Protective response to an invasion of one's territory. Aggressive displays would have been adaptive for our distant ancestors because they allowed groups to defend valuable resources associated with their territory.
Research:
- Neave and Wolfson (2003)
- Pollard and Pollard (2005)
Warfare
War is an extreme course of action contradictory to survival so it must be assumed that the benefits will outweigh the cost. Male warriors have been found to be more sexually attractive to females, making them more likely to get a mate and pass on their genes. Even in modern day, men fight to secure access to women. More than 20,000 Muslim women were raped in Bosnia by the Serbs in order for them to increase the number of Serbian babies born.
Research:
- Lehmann and Feldman (2008)
- Kelly and Dunbar (2001)
- Farthing (2005)
Showing posts with label Aggression. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Aggression. Show all posts
Wednesday, 30 September 2015
Tuesday, 22 September 2015
Genetic Causes of Aggression
XYY Karyotype
Sandberg (1961): First identified what is scientifically known as the 47 XYY Karyotype. Most individuals have 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent). Female have XX and male XY. It is possible for males to have an extra Y chromosome (making XYY).
The link between XYY males and increased aggressiveness was an early assumption that Court-Brown made prior to the examination of the patients. This point was later retracted, although it was too late because many scientists had already incorporated this incorrect view into their thinking. While the gene has actually only been proved to have effects on height and acne, but the stigma is still there and men with the XYY chromosome are assumed to be more aggressive despite research opposing this.
Research in this area is conflicting so it is not possible to conclude that the XYY gene causes aggression. Using projective tests, Theilgaard showed that XYY men tend to give more aggressive interpretations of the images compared to XY males.
Research:
- Court-Brown (1965-1967)
- Theilgaard (1984)
Twin Studies
Monozygotic twins share all of their genes.
Dizygotic twins share 50% of their genes.
If a researcher compares the similarity between sets of MZ twins to the similarity between DZ twins for a trait like aggression and finds that MZ twins are more alike, then this likeness should be due to genetics rather than environmental factors. Most twin studies have focused on criminal behaviour.
Research:
- Berkowitz (1993)
- McGuffin and Gottesman (1985)
- Meta analysis by Mason and Frick (1997)
- Coccaro et al (1997)
Adoption Studies
A way of studying genetic factors in aggressive behaviour is by studying children who have been brought up by adults who aren't their biological parents. Adoption studies can help to untangle the relative contributions of environment and heredity in aggression. If a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and aggressive behaviour in their biological parents, a genetic effect is implied.
Research
- Mednick et al (1975)
- Miles and Carey (1997)
- Brennan and Mednick (1993)
Sandberg (1961): First identified what is scientifically known as the 47 XYY Karyotype. Most individuals have 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent). Female have XX and male XY. It is possible for males to have an extra Y chromosome (making XYY).
The link between XYY males and increased aggressiveness was an early assumption that Court-Brown made prior to the examination of the patients. This point was later retracted, although it was too late because many scientists had already incorporated this incorrect view into their thinking. While the gene has actually only been proved to have effects on height and acne, but the stigma is still there and men with the XYY chromosome are assumed to be more aggressive despite research opposing this.
Research in this area is conflicting so it is not possible to conclude that the XYY gene causes aggression. Using projective tests, Theilgaard showed that XYY men tend to give more aggressive interpretations of the images compared to XY males.
Research:
- Court-Brown (1965-1967)
- Theilgaard (1984)
Twin Studies
Monozygotic twins share all of their genes.
Dizygotic twins share 50% of their genes.
If a researcher compares the similarity between sets of MZ twins to the similarity between DZ twins for a trait like aggression and finds that MZ twins are more alike, then this likeness should be due to genetics rather than environmental factors. Most twin studies have focused on criminal behaviour.
Research:
- Berkowitz (1993)
- McGuffin and Gottesman (1985)
- Meta analysis by Mason and Frick (1997)
- Coccaro et al (1997)
Adoption Studies
A way of studying genetic factors in aggressive behaviour is by studying children who have been brought up by adults who aren't their biological parents. Adoption studies can help to untangle the relative contributions of environment and heredity in aggression. If a positive correlation is found between aggressive behaviour in adopted children and aggressive behaviour in their biological parents, a genetic effect is implied.
Research
- Mednick et al (1975)
- Miles and Carey (1997)
- Brennan and Mednick (1993)
Wednesday, 16 September 2015
Biological Causes of Aggression
Neurotransmitters
Dopamine
High levels of dopamine are linked to high levels of aggression. Dopamine is often released in response to rewarding stimuli such as food, sex and recreational drugs.
Studies
• Couppis et al (2008)
• Couppis & Kennedy (2008)
• Ferrari (2003)
Evaluation
- Use of animals
- Nature/Nurture
- Free will/Determinism
Serotonin
Low serotonin can result in impulsive behaviour, aggression, overeating, depression, alcohol abuse and violent suicide. e.g. Silver foxes tamed by humans for more than 30 years - found high levels of serotonin.
Studies
• Linnolia & Virkkunen (1992)
• Cleare & Band (1997)
• Summers et al (2005)
• Davidson (2000)
Evaluation
- Nature/Nurture
- Free will/determinism
- Ethics
Brain Structure
Amygdala: Direct stimulation of an area of the amygdala in can make people more aggressive. It is more active during 'red alert' - when an animal attacks another. People are also armed to be more aggressive for 5-20 minutes after being provoked. Research: Protegal (1996).
Charles Whitman.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus has been shown to cause aggressive behaviour when electrically stimulated, but more importantly, has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin. Research: Siegel & Pott (1988).
Cortex: The cortex seems to inhibit emotion and aggression. Research: Bard (1930s).
Hormonal Mechanisms
Testosterone: The male sex hormone testosterone is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood. Males produce testosterone in the testes and women also produce testosterone but in smaller amounts. Testosterone is an androgen hormone and peaks in males between 15 and 25.
Research: Dabbs et al (1987); Lindman (1987); The Challenge Hypothesis
Cortisol: Cortisol is produced by the adrenal medulla and is an important part of the body's response to stress. Lower cortisol levels are related to higher levels of aggression.
Research: Van Goozen et al (2007); Virkkunen (1985); Tennes and Kreve (1985)
Dopamine
High levels of dopamine are linked to high levels of aggression. Dopamine is often released in response to rewarding stimuli such as food, sex and recreational drugs.
Studies
• Couppis et al (2008)
• Couppis & Kennedy (2008)
• Ferrari (2003)
Evaluation
- Use of animals
- Nature/Nurture
- Free will/Determinism
Serotonin
Low serotonin can result in impulsive behaviour, aggression, overeating, depression, alcohol abuse and violent suicide. e.g. Silver foxes tamed by humans for more than 30 years - found high levels of serotonin.
Studies
• Linnolia & Virkkunen (1992)
• Cleare & Band (1997)
• Summers et al (2005)
• Davidson (2000)
Evaluation
- Nature/Nurture
- Free will/determinism
- Ethics
Brain Structure
Amygdala: Direct stimulation of an area of the amygdala in can make people more aggressive. It is more active during 'red alert' - when an animal attacks another. People are also armed to be more aggressive for 5-20 minutes after being provoked. Research: Protegal (1996).
Charles Whitman.
Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus has been shown to cause aggressive behaviour when electrically stimulated, but more importantly, has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin. Research: Siegel & Pott (1988).
Cortex: The cortex seems to inhibit emotion and aggression. Research: Bard (1930s).
Hormonal Mechanisms
Testosterone: The male sex hormone testosterone is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood. Males produce testosterone in the testes and women also produce testosterone but in smaller amounts. Testosterone is an androgen hormone and peaks in males between 15 and 25.
Research: Dabbs et al (1987); Lindman (1987); The Challenge Hypothesis
Cortisol: Cortisol is produced by the adrenal medulla and is an important part of the body's response to stress. Lower cortisol levels are related to higher levels of aggression.
Research: Van Goozen et al (2007); Virkkunen (1985); Tennes and Kreve (1985)
Wednesday, 9 September 2015
Institutional Aggression
The Importation Model (Irwin & Cressey 1962)
- Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison and this influences behaviour.
- They have a 'ready made' way of behaving and bring it into the institution.
- Race and age affects behaviour - young, non-whites are more likely to be aggressive in prison.
- Kane and Janus suggest that this is because groups become disenfranchised from mainstream society's norms.
Irwin and Cressey identified 3 prisoner subculture categories:
1) The Criminal or Thief Subculture (values inherent in professional their, trustworthy to fellow criminals.)
2) The Convict Subculture (raised in prison system, seek position of power, influence and information within institution. Most likely to turn aggression to cope.)
3) The Conventional/Straight Subculture (one time offenders, not part of criminal subculture before entering prison, identify more with prison staff, tend not to be aggressive in prison.)
Supported by:
• Mills, Kroner & Weeks
• Harer and Steffensmeier
• Delis
• Poole and Regale
The Deprivation Model (Sykes)
Situational factors must influence prison behaviour, this involves organisational factors like leadership, management, physical factors (security, resources) and staff characteristics, (gender, race etc.)
Aggression occurs as a result of internal factors within the prison setting and its due to the environment. Aggressive behaviours originates in the deprivations they experience (e.g. lack of relationships).
Sykes's outlines five deprivations -
1) Deprivation of liberty - prisoners cannot live in the world like normal people and have to experience loss of civil rights, and loss of identity.
2) Deprivation of autonomy - no power or choice. Everything is controlled.
3) Deprivation of goods and services - no material possessions.
4) Deprivation of heterosexual relationships - no companionship - reduce self-worth
5) Deprivation of security - fear for own safety
Supported by:
• Richards
• McCorkle
Real life application -
Abu Ghraib
Behaviours at Abu Ghraib were result of:
• Status and power - soldiers had little power so asserted it over prisoners.
• Revenge and retaliation - hurting/killing fellow US soldiers
• Deindividuation and helplessness
However, the institutional aggression may come from the individuals, not the institution itself.
Dehumanisation and genocide
If the target group is dehumanised, they are seen as unworthy of moral consideration and disposable. In the Rwansan genocide, the influential Hutu-controlled 'hate' radio station encouraged listeners to murder their Tutsi neighbours by referring to them as 'cockroaches'. Examples like this can also be found in world war II.
- Prisoners bring their own social histories and traits with them into prison and this influences behaviour.
- They have a 'ready made' way of behaving and bring it into the institution.
- Race and age affects behaviour - young, non-whites are more likely to be aggressive in prison.
- Kane and Janus suggest that this is because groups become disenfranchised from mainstream society's norms.
Irwin and Cressey identified 3 prisoner subculture categories:
1) The Criminal or Thief Subculture (values inherent in professional their, trustworthy to fellow criminals.)
2) The Convict Subculture (raised in prison system, seek position of power, influence and information within institution. Most likely to turn aggression to cope.)
3) The Conventional/Straight Subculture (one time offenders, not part of criminal subculture before entering prison, identify more with prison staff, tend not to be aggressive in prison.)
Supported by:
• Mills, Kroner & Weeks
• Harer and Steffensmeier
• Delis
• Poole and Regale
The Deprivation Model (Sykes)
Situational factors must influence prison behaviour, this involves organisational factors like leadership, management, physical factors (security, resources) and staff characteristics, (gender, race etc.)
Aggression occurs as a result of internal factors within the prison setting and its due to the environment. Aggressive behaviours originates in the deprivations they experience (e.g. lack of relationships).
Sykes's outlines five deprivations -
1) Deprivation of liberty - prisoners cannot live in the world like normal people and have to experience loss of civil rights, and loss of identity.
2) Deprivation of autonomy - no power or choice. Everything is controlled.
3) Deprivation of goods and services - no material possessions.
4) Deprivation of heterosexual relationships - no companionship - reduce self-worth
5) Deprivation of security - fear for own safety
Supported by:
• Richards
• McCorkle
Real life application -
Abu Ghraib
Behaviours at Abu Ghraib were result of:
• Status and power - soldiers had little power so asserted it over prisoners.
• Revenge and retaliation - hurting/killing fellow US soldiers
• Deindividuation and helplessness
However, the institutional aggression may come from the individuals, not the institution itself.
Dehumanisation and genocide
If the target group is dehumanised, they are seen as unworthy of moral consideration and disposable. In the Rwansan genocide, the influential Hutu-controlled 'hate' radio station encouraged listeners to murder their Tutsi neighbours by referring to them as 'cockroaches'. Examples like this can also be found in world war II.
Monday, 29 June 2015
Deindividuation - Aggression
Theory
Deindividuation- to lose one's sense of individuality and identity. Occurs in two ways:
1) Becoming part of a crowd
2) Identifying with a particular role
Individuals feel less identifiable in a group, so that normal constraints that prevent aggressive behaviour may be lost. (key terms: anonymity, suggestibility and contagion)
Le Bon (1895) - 'crowd theory' - Individuals are more likely to behave in an aggressive manner when a part of a large anonymous group.
When does deindividuation occur?
- Self-awareness is blocked by environmental events.
- Strong feeling of group membership.
- Increased levels of arousal.
- Focus on external events.
- Feeling of anonymity.
Perception of time is distorted and they are unable to consider consequences.
Critical Factors --> Reduced self-awareness --> Deindividuation
Zimbardo's Theory (1969)
- Being a part of a crowd diminishes the awareness of our own individuality. This is caused by:
1. Anonymity
2. Diminished fear of negative evaluation of actions by others.
3. A reduced sense of guilt.
Therefore the barriers to antisocial behaviour are weakened and aggressive behaviour occurs.
Research and Evaluation
Deindividuation- to lose one's sense of individuality and identity. Occurs in two ways:
1) Becoming part of a crowd
2) Identifying with a particular role
Individuals feel less identifiable in a group, so that normal constraints that prevent aggressive behaviour may be lost. (key terms: anonymity, suggestibility and contagion)
Le Bon (1895) - 'crowd theory' - Individuals are more likely to behave in an aggressive manner when a part of a large anonymous group.
When does deindividuation occur?
- Self-awareness is blocked by environmental events.
- Strong feeling of group membership.
- Increased levels of arousal.
- Focus on external events.
- Feeling of anonymity.
Perception of time is distorted and they are unable to consider consequences.
Critical Factors --> Reduced self-awareness --> Deindividuation
Zimbardo's Theory (1969)
- Being a part of a crowd diminishes the awareness of our own individuality. This is caused by:
1. Anonymity
2. Diminished fear of negative evaluation of actions by others.
3. A reduced sense of guilt.
Therefore the barriers to antisocial behaviour are weakened and aggressive behaviour occurs.
__________________________________
Research on Deindividuation
General Evaluation
+ Lots of research
- Deindividuation is not always inevitable
- Individual differences
- Reductionist? (doesn't take into account social norms - e.g. brutality of guards prison experiment)
- Free Will vs Determinism (suggests presence of group is to blame)
- Lack of support - Postmes and Speares (1998) meta analysis of 60 studies concluded insufficient data for claims.
Friday, 12 June 2015
Social Learning Theory - Aggression
Theory
People learn new behaviours through observational learning of the social factors in their environment. This means that:
• We learn specifics of aggressive behaviour.
• If people observe positive outcomes of aggression, they are more likely to model and imitate the behaviour observed, supported by Bandura.
e.g. If children observe a naughty child benefitting from their behaviour through attention, then they are likely to copy.
Observation
• Children learn their aggressive responses through observation and imitation.
• Skinner suggests operant conditioning, however Bandura suggests behaviour is learned through imitation of role models.
• Children also learn about the consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished. This is vicarious reinforcement.
• Lots of aggressive behaviour is observed from TV and films.
• By observing consequences, a child learns what is considered appropriate.
• This enables them to learn behaviours which they repeat.
Mental Representation
• Bandura (1986) claimed that in order for social learning to take place, the child must form mental representations of events in their social environment.
• Child will display learned behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.
Production of behaviour
Maintenance through direct experience - A child who has a history of successfully bullying children will therefore come to attach considerable value to aggression.
Self-efficacy experiences - If aggressive acts have been disastrous, they have less confidence to use aggression and turn to other means to resolve conflict.
Social Cognitive Perspective
• Bandura combines logic of social psychology and cognitive psychology in the cognitive perspective.
• Bandura though that behaviour may be motivated by inherent psychological factors and socio-enviromental factors. He argued that the individual and the social environment were linked (reciprocal determinism).
Conditions/Methods for effective social learning
Attention - Someone can only learn through observation if they attend to the model's behaviour.
Retention - To model the behaviour, it needs to be remembered and placed into LTM.
Reproduction - The individual needs to be able to reproduce the behaviour. The observer must possess the physical capabilities of the modelled behaviour.
Motivation - An individual expects to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour.
People learn new behaviours through observational learning of the social factors in their environment. This means that:
• We learn specifics of aggressive behaviour.
• If people observe positive outcomes of aggression, they are more likely to model and imitate the behaviour observed, supported by Bandura.
e.g. If children observe a naughty child benefitting from their behaviour through attention, then they are likely to copy.
Observation
• Children learn their aggressive responses through observation and imitation.
• Skinner suggests operant conditioning, however Bandura suggests behaviour is learned through imitation of role models.
• Children also learn about the consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished. This is vicarious reinforcement.
• Lots of aggressive behaviour is observed from TV and films.
• By observing consequences, a child learns what is considered appropriate.
• This enables them to learn behaviours which they repeat.
Mental Representation
• Bandura (1986) claimed that in order for social learning to take place, the child must form mental representations of events in their social environment.
• Child will display learned behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.
Production of behaviour
Maintenance through direct experience - A child who has a history of successfully bullying children will therefore come to attach considerable value to aggression.
Self-efficacy experiences - If aggressive acts have been disastrous, they have less confidence to use aggression and turn to other means to resolve conflict.
Social Cognitive Perspective
• Bandura combines logic of social psychology and cognitive psychology in the cognitive perspective.
• Bandura though that behaviour may be motivated by inherent psychological factors and socio-enviromental factors. He argued that the individual and the social environment were linked (reciprocal determinism).
Conditions/Methods for effective social learning
Attention - Someone can only learn through observation if they attend to the model's behaviour.
Retention - To model the behaviour, it needs to be remembered and placed into LTM.
Reproduction - The individual needs to be able to reproduce the behaviour. The observer must possess the physical capabilities of the modelled behaviour.
Motivation - An individual expects to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour.
Aggression
AGGRESSION: Behaviour that is intended to harm or injure, directed towards another human being, (can include psychological injury)
HOSTILE AGGRESSION: Generally caused by being provoked/upset and the primary purpose is to harm someone.
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION: Primary goal is to gain a reward. Not usually provoked by anger or emotion.
PRO-SOCIAL AGGRESSION: Aggression performed to prevent greater harm.
HOSTILE AGGRESSION: Generally caused by being provoked/upset and the primary purpose is to harm someone.
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION: Primary goal is to gain a reward. Not usually provoked by anger or emotion.
PRO-SOCIAL AGGRESSION: Aggression performed to prevent greater harm.
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