A
Alpha bias: Assumes real differences between males and females.
Amygdala: A small part of the brain which processes emotions.
Anonymity: Being without identity.
Attention: Notice taken of a behaviour.
B
Beta-endorphin: An opiate neurotransmitter.
Beta bias: Assumes there are no real differences between men and women, or that any differences are trivial.
C
Concordance: The degree of similarity in pairs of twins with respect to a trait.
Contagion: The spread of a behaviour pattern.
Cortex: A part of the brain important for the role of consciousness.
Cortisol: A hormone important in the stress response.
Crowd Theory: Individuals are more likely to be aggressive when a part of a large, anonymous group.
Cultural Relativism: The idea that all cultures are different and equally worth studying.
D
Determinism: The extent to which one's behaviours/actions are predetermined.
Dizygotic: Non-identical twins - share 50% of their genes.
Dopamine: The neurotransmitter chemical associated with rewards e.g. sex, food, drugs etc.
E
Emic analysis: Behaviour is culturally specific.
Endorphins: Opiate neurotransmitters.
Enkephalin: An opiate neurotransmitter.
Environmental determinism: Behaviour is determined by the environment.
Environmental reductionism: Relates to behaviourist approach and tries to explain all human behaviour in terms of simple conditioning. Ignores cognitive processes.
Etic Analysis: Behaviour is universal and cultural differences can be ignored.
Ethnocentrism: The idea that research findings from one culture can be generalised to all cultures.
Eurocentrism: The generalisation of results from Europe and America.
Evolutionary reductionism: Behaviour must have been adaptive and inherited. Ignored cultural variations.
F
Free Will: The extent to which one has complete control over their actions/behaviours.
G
H
Holism: When an approach takes into consideration every extraneous factor thinkable and is well-rounded.
Hostile Aggression: Generally caused by being provoked/upset and the primary purpose is to harm someone.
Hypothalamus: A region of the brain which controls body temperature, thirst, hunger, sleep and emotional activity.
I
Idiographic: The approach of investigating in personal, in-depth detail in order to obtain a unique understanding of them.
Instrumental Aggression: Primary goal is to gain a reward. Not usually provoked by anger or emotion.
J
K
L
M
Mental Representations: Creating a representation of something subconsciously.
Methodological Reductionism: Certain variables are identified and ten studied in a controlled experiment.
Monozygotic: Identical twins - share all of their genes.
Motivation: Expectancy of reward for behaviour.
N
Nature: The impact genetics have on behaviour.
Nomothetic: The approach of investigating groups of people in order to try to find general laws of behaviour that apply to everyone.
Nurture: The impact upbringing and environment have on behaviour.
O
Observational Learning: Learning by watching others.
Opiate: Drugs such as heroin and morphine. Also naturally occurring neurotransmitters in the brain, involved in feelings of pleasure and pain reduction.
P
Pro-Social Aggression: Aggression performed to prevent greater harm.
Q
R
Reciprocal Determinism: The theory that that a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment.
Reductionism: Over-simplifying a complex theory.
Relative Deprivation: The perceived difference between what you have and what you think you should have.
Reproduction: Recreating behaviour.
Retention: Ability to hold information.
Reward System: A system of pathways that control feelings of reward and pleasure.
S
Self-awareness: Being aware of one's own behaviour.
Self-efficacy: An individual's belief in one's own capacity.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: When a person feels as though they have to adapt their behaviour to live up to how they're perceived.
Serotonin: The neurotransmitter chemical responsible for happiness and depression.
Soft determinism: If our actions are voluntary and in line with our conscious desired goals then they are free.
Suggestibility: Being inclined to act on others' decisions.
T
Testosterone: A male sex hormone / androgen hormone.
Tryptophan: An amino acid found in food that is essential to the production of serotonin.
U
Unconscious determinism: Our behaviour is controlled by forces of which we are unaware.
V
Vicarious Reinforcement: Witnessing others receiving reinforcement and taking on favourable behaviour.
W
X
XYY Karyotype: When males have an extra Y chromosome and are seen as more aggressive.
XY: Male chromosomes.
XX: Female chromosomes.
Y
Z
Monday, 29 June 2015
Studies - Deindividuation
Colman (1991)
In some countries, deindividuation has even been accepted as grounds for extenuating circumstances in murder trials.
Hogg and Vaughn (1998)
In some countries, deindividuation has even been accepted as grounds for extenuating circumstances in murder trials.
_____________________________
Hogg and Vaughn define deindividuation as: 'a process whereby people lose their sense of socialised individual identity and engage in unsocialised, often anti-social behaviours'.
_____________________________
Zimbardo (1969)
Procedure
- Groups of 4 female undergraduates.
- Delivered shocks to other student.
- Half in bulky lab coats and hoods in separate cubicles, never referred to by name; half in normal clothes with large name tags and introduced to each other by name.
- Both sets told they could see the person being shocked.
Findings
- Hooded - deindividuated - shocked participant for twice as long as identifiable participants.
_____________________________
Rehm et al (1987)
Procedure
- Randomly assigned German schoolchildren to handball teams of 5.
- Half wore orange shirts; half wore street clothes.
Findings
- Children wearing orange played more aggressively.
_____________________________
Mullen (1986) - The Faceless Crowd
Mullen analysed newspaper cuttings of 60 lynchings in US between 1899 and 1946 and found more people = more savagery.
_____________________________
Milgram (1965)
Found that participants were more likely to give higher levels of shock when they could not see their victim. When the victim was in the same room, participants were more reluctant to deliver high level shocks.
_____________________________
Mann (1981) - The Baiting Crowd
- Analysed 21 suicide leaps from US newspapers in 1960s and 70s.
- 10 out of 21 cases had a large crowds gathered, baiting the jumper.
- Occurred at night when crowd was large and some distance from the person jumping.
- This caused anonymity and deindividualisation.
_____________________________
Malamuth (1981)
Almost 1/3 of male students questioned at an American university admitted there was a likelihood that they would rape if they were certain they would not get caught.
_____________________________
Diener et al (1976)
Procedures
- Observed behaviour of 1,352 children on Halloween trick-or-treating.
- Approached 27 focal homes in Seattle where they were invited to take one candy.
- Half children were asked their names and addresses beforehand - reduced deindividuation.
Findings
- Groups and deindividuated children were more than twice as likely to take extra candy.
- Transgression rate varied from 8% of individuated individuals to 80% of deindividuated groups.
_____________________________
Prentice-Dunn et al (1982)
It is reduced self-awareness, rather than simply anonymity, that leads to deindividuation. If an individual is self-focused, they tend to focus on, and act according to their internalised attitudes and moral standards, thus reducing the likelihood of antisocial behaviour. If an individual submerges themselves in a group, they could lose their focus and less able to regulate their own behaviour.
Johnson and Downing (1979)
Procedure
- Female participants administer shocks to confederates in paired association task.
- Half women wore KKK robe; half in nurse's uniform. Experimenter commented on the explicit resemblance.
- Half wore a large name badge.
Findings
- Deindividuation failed to increase aggression.
- Nurses less aggressive.
- Individuated nurses least aggressive.
- Two important conclusions:
1. Aggression and antisocial behaviour are not automatic and inevitable consequences of anonymity.
2. Normative expectations surrounding situations of deindividuation may influence behaviour.
It is reduced self-awareness, rather than simply anonymity, that leads to deindividuation. If an individual is self-focused, they tend to focus on, and act according to their internalised attitudes and moral standards, thus reducing the likelihood of antisocial behaviour. If an individual submerges themselves in a group, they could lose their focus and less able to regulate their own behaviour.
_____________________________
Johnson and Downing (1979)
Procedure
- Female participants administer shocks to confederates in paired association task.
- Half women wore KKK robe; half in nurse's uniform. Experimenter commented on the explicit resemblance.
- Half wore a large name badge.
Findings
- Deindividuation failed to increase aggression.
- Nurses less aggressive.
- Individuated nurses least aggressive.
- Two important conclusions:
1. Aggression and antisocial behaviour are not automatic and inevitable consequences of anonymity.
2. Normative expectations surrounding situations of deindividuation may influence behaviour.
Deindividuation - Aggression
Theory
Deindividuation- to lose one's sense of individuality and identity. Occurs in two ways:
1) Becoming part of a crowd
2) Identifying with a particular role
Individuals feel less identifiable in a group, so that normal constraints that prevent aggressive behaviour may be lost. (key terms: anonymity, suggestibility and contagion)
Le Bon (1895) - 'crowd theory' - Individuals are more likely to behave in an aggressive manner when a part of a large anonymous group.
When does deindividuation occur?
- Self-awareness is blocked by environmental events.
- Strong feeling of group membership.
- Increased levels of arousal.
- Focus on external events.
- Feeling of anonymity.
Perception of time is distorted and they are unable to consider consequences.
Critical Factors --> Reduced self-awareness --> Deindividuation
Zimbardo's Theory (1969)
- Being a part of a crowd diminishes the awareness of our own individuality. This is caused by:
1. Anonymity
2. Diminished fear of negative evaluation of actions by others.
3. A reduced sense of guilt.
Therefore the barriers to antisocial behaviour are weakened and aggressive behaviour occurs.
Research and Evaluation
Deindividuation- to lose one's sense of individuality and identity. Occurs in two ways:
1) Becoming part of a crowd
2) Identifying with a particular role
Individuals feel less identifiable in a group, so that normal constraints that prevent aggressive behaviour may be lost. (key terms: anonymity, suggestibility and contagion)
Le Bon (1895) - 'crowd theory' - Individuals are more likely to behave in an aggressive manner when a part of a large anonymous group.
When does deindividuation occur?
- Self-awareness is blocked by environmental events.
- Strong feeling of group membership.
- Increased levels of arousal.
- Focus on external events.
- Feeling of anonymity.
Perception of time is distorted and they are unable to consider consequences.
Critical Factors --> Reduced self-awareness --> Deindividuation
Zimbardo's Theory (1969)
- Being a part of a crowd diminishes the awareness of our own individuality. This is caused by:
1. Anonymity
2. Diminished fear of negative evaluation of actions by others.
3. A reduced sense of guilt.
Therefore the barriers to antisocial behaviour are weakened and aggressive behaviour occurs.
__________________________________
Research on Deindividuation
General Evaluation
+ Lots of research
- Deindividuation is not always inevitable
- Individual differences
- Reductionist? (doesn't take into account social norms - e.g. brutality of guards prison experiment)
- Free Will vs Determinism (suggests presence of group is to blame)
- Lack of support - Postmes and Speares (1998) meta analysis of 60 studies concluded insufficient data for claims.
Studies - Social Learning Theory
Bandura et al (1961)- Bobo Doll
Sample: 72 child participants (36 boys & girls) between 3-5 years old
Procedure
- Condition one : aggressive group - 24 participants
- Condition two : non-aggressive group - 24 participants
- Condition three : control group - 24 participants
- Children rated on aggression
- Enter playroom with role model and experimenter. Played away from role model.
- Adult had bobo doll, mallet and construction set.
- Aggressive model hit doll and non-aggressive model ignored doll.
- Role model and experimenter leave.
- Children go to a room with toys they can't use.
- Then go to a different room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys.
- Observer watches behind one way mirror.
Findings
- Aggressive model = aggressive children
- 1/3 of children following aggressive model made verbal remarks. None of non-aggressive children did this.
- Boys = more physical, girls = more verbal.
Conclusion
Aggression can be learned through observation.
Bandura and Walters (1963)
Children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour showed high level of aggression. Reverse if seeing punishment. Learning through vicarious reinforcement.
Bandura (1963)
Sample: 72 child participants (36 boys & girls) between 3-5 years old
Procedure
- Condition one : aggressive group - 24 participants
- Condition two : non-aggressive group - 24 participants
- Condition three : control group - 24 participants
- Children rated on aggression
- Enter playroom with role model and experimenter. Played away from role model.
- Adult had bobo doll, mallet and construction set.
- Aggressive model hit doll and non-aggressive model ignored doll.
- Role model and experimenter leave.
- Children go to a room with toys they can't use.
- Then go to a different room with aggressive and non-aggressive toys.
- Observer watches behind one way mirror.
Findings
- Aggressive model = aggressive children
- 1/3 of children following aggressive model made verbal remarks. None of non-aggressive children did this.
- Boys = more physical, girls = more verbal.
Conclusion
Aggression can be learned through observation.
______________________________________
Bandura and Walters (1963)
Children who saw the model being rewarded for aggressive behaviour showed high level of aggression. Reverse if seeing punishment. Learning through vicarious reinforcement.
______________________________________
Viewing aggression by cartoon characters produces as much aggression as viewing live aggression performed by adults. Entertainment industry has an influential role on the social development of children.
______________________________________
Patterson (1989)
Demonstrated that role models are important in the development of antisocial behaviour and that parents are the most important ones. Through surveys/questionnaires, they found that aggressive children are raised in homes of high aggression, little affection and little positive feedback.
______________________________________
Mead (1935)
Found the Arapesh is an example of non-aggressive culture in which aggression is not admired or modelled by adults. The Mundugmor show the opposite pattern. Shows that SLT can be applied universally.
______________________________________
Flanagan (2000)
Suggests that testosterone had been cited as a primary cause of aggression and other genetic/neuroanatomical structures are involved. SLT is reductionistic.
______________________________________
Runciman (1966)
Challenged Bandura's explanation; suggested that aggressive behaviour might be due to relative deprivation - the perceived difference between what you have and what you think you should have.
______________________________________
Dollard et al (1939)
Aggressive behaviour is not due to imitation alone. Aggression is the result of frustration built up (psychoanalysis) and presence of environmental cues (behaviourism) that signal aggression.
Friday, 12 June 2015
Social Learning Theory - Aggression
Theory
People learn new behaviours through observational learning of the social factors in their environment. This means that:
• We learn specifics of aggressive behaviour.
• If people observe positive outcomes of aggression, they are more likely to model and imitate the behaviour observed, supported by Bandura.
e.g. If children observe a naughty child benefitting from their behaviour through attention, then they are likely to copy.
Observation
• Children learn their aggressive responses through observation and imitation.
• Skinner suggests operant conditioning, however Bandura suggests behaviour is learned through imitation of role models.
• Children also learn about the consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished. This is vicarious reinforcement.
• Lots of aggressive behaviour is observed from TV and films.
• By observing consequences, a child learns what is considered appropriate.
• This enables them to learn behaviours which they repeat.
Mental Representation
• Bandura (1986) claimed that in order for social learning to take place, the child must form mental representations of events in their social environment.
• Child will display learned behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.
Production of behaviour
Maintenance through direct experience - A child who has a history of successfully bullying children will therefore come to attach considerable value to aggression.
Self-efficacy experiences - If aggressive acts have been disastrous, they have less confidence to use aggression and turn to other means to resolve conflict.
Social Cognitive Perspective
• Bandura combines logic of social psychology and cognitive psychology in the cognitive perspective.
• Bandura though that behaviour may be motivated by inherent psychological factors and socio-enviromental factors. He argued that the individual and the social environment were linked (reciprocal determinism).
Conditions/Methods for effective social learning
Attention - Someone can only learn through observation if they attend to the model's behaviour.
Retention - To model the behaviour, it needs to be remembered and placed into LTM.
Reproduction - The individual needs to be able to reproduce the behaviour. The observer must possess the physical capabilities of the modelled behaviour.
Motivation - An individual expects to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour.
People learn new behaviours through observational learning of the social factors in their environment. This means that:
• We learn specifics of aggressive behaviour.
• If people observe positive outcomes of aggression, they are more likely to model and imitate the behaviour observed, supported by Bandura.
e.g. If children observe a naughty child benefitting from their behaviour through attention, then they are likely to copy.
Observation
• Children learn their aggressive responses through observation and imitation.
• Skinner suggests operant conditioning, however Bandura suggests behaviour is learned through imitation of role models.
• Children also learn about the consequences of aggressive behaviour by watching others being reinforced or punished. This is vicarious reinforcement.
• Lots of aggressive behaviour is observed from TV and films.
• By observing consequences, a child learns what is considered appropriate.
• This enables them to learn behaviours which they repeat.
Mental Representation
• Bandura (1986) claimed that in order for social learning to take place, the child must form mental representations of events in their social environment.
• Child will display learned behaviour if the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment.
Production of behaviour
Maintenance through direct experience - A child who has a history of successfully bullying children will therefore come to attach considerable value to aggression.
Self-efficacy experiences - If aggressive acts have been disastrous, they have less confidence to use aggression and turn to other means to resolve conflict.
Social Cognitive Perspective
• Bandura combines logic of social psychology and cognitive psychology in the cognitive perspective.
• Bandura though that behaviour may be motivated by inherent psychological factors and socio-enviromental factors. He argued that the individual and the social environment were linked (reciprocal determinism).
Conditions/Methods for effective social learning
Attention - Someone can only learn through observation if they attend to the model's behaviour.
Retention - To model the behaviour, it needs to be remembered and placed into LTM.
Reproduction - The individual needs to be able to reproduce the behaviour. The observer must possess the physical capabilities of the modelled behaviour.
Motivation - An individual expects to receive positive reinforcement for the modelled behaviour.
Aggression
AGGRESSION: Behaviour that is intended to harm or injure, directed towards another human being, (can include psychological injury)
HOSTILE AGGRESSION: Generally caused by being provoked/upset and the primary purpose is to harm someone.
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION: Primary goal is to gain a reward. Not usually provoked by anger or emotion.
PRO-SOCIAL AGGRESSION: Aggression performed to prevent greater harm.
HOSTILE AGGRESSION: Generally caused by being provoked/upset and the primary purpose is to harm someone.
INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION: Primary goal is to gain a reward. Not usually provoked by anger or emotion.
PRO-SOCIAL AGGRESSION: Aggression performed to prevent greater harm.
Psychology Syllabus
The A2 Psychology Syllabus
• Aggression
• Bio Rhythms and sleep
• Relationships
• Eating behaviour
• Schizophrenia
• Media Psychology
• Research Methods
• Bio Rhythms and sleep
• Relationships
• Eating behaviour
• Schizophrenia
• Media Psychology
• Research Methods
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)